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ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY. 



\* v U 



1 EPORT 



ON THE 



COMPRESSIVE STRi JGTH, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 



AND 



RATIO OF ABSORPTION 



OF 



VARIOUS KINDS OF BUILDING-STONE FROM DIFFERENT 

SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 



TESTED AT 



FOET TOMPKINS, STATEN ISLAND, N. Y. 



BY 



Q. A. GILLMORE, 

l.II'l IT. COL. COUPS OF KV.l\l.i'i;>. BYT. MAJ. GEN. tr. S. A. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1874. 



ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY. 



REPORT 



ON THE 



COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 



AND 



RATIO OF ABSORPTION 



OF 



VARIOUS KINDS OF BUILDING-STONE FROM DIFFERENT 
SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 



TESTED AT 



FQBT TOMPKINS, STATEN ISLAND, N. Y. 



BY 



Q. A. GILLMORE, 

LIEUT. COL. COUPS OF ENGINEERS, BVT. MAJ. GEN. U. S. A. 



/ 



/ * 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFF TOE 
1874. 



Engineer Office, New York, July 30, 1874. 

General : I have the honor to submit herewith a report on the com- 
pressive strength, specific gravity, and ratio of absorption of various kinds 
of building-stone from different sections of the United States, tested 
by me in person, or under my directions, at Fort Tompkins, Staten Island, 
within the last eighteen months. 

A sheet of drawings accompanies this report, showing the hydrostatic 
press used for crushing the specimens, and several somewhat peculiar 
forms of breakage. 

Yery respectfully, your obedient servant, 

Q. A. Gillmore, 
Lt. Col. of Engineers, Bvt. Maj. Gen. U. 8. A. 
Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, 

CMef of Engineers, U.S.A. 

Note. — In making the tests, and preparing this report, valuable assistance was ren- 
dered by Capt. D. P. Heap, Corps of Engineers, and by Messrs. Louis Nickerson, John 
L. Suess, and James Cocrofc. 

Q. A. G. 

[Indorsement.] 

Office of the Chief of Engineers, 

Washington, D. C, August 10, 1874. 
Respectfully submitted to the honorable Secretary of War. This 
paper contains valuable information for the officers of the Corps of En- 
gineers, and I respectfully recommend that authority may be granted 
to have it printed at the Public Printer's ; the plates to be prepared in 
this office. 

A. A. Humphreys, 
Brig. Gen. and Chief of Engineers. 

Approved by the Secretary of War August 12, 1874. 



REPORT. 



OBJECTS USED FOR TESTING. 

The majority of stones experimented upon were delivered from the 
quarries in the form of true cubes, measuring two inches each way ; 
while some liad to be cut to that shape at Fort Tompkins. Generally 
speaking, the stones were quite true and regular in shape. To distribute 
the pressure more evenly over the whole surface of the stone, each cube 
was placed between two cushions of soft pine-wood, measuring 2" x 2" x 
§" $ one of them on top of the cube, and the other at its bottom. 

This arrangement also caused the pressure to act more gradually. 
The wooden cushions, becoming much indented by the effects of the 
pressure, to some extent took the place of mortar, which would be used 
in actual building. 

For iron and wood, Hodgkinson has shown that trial- specimens 
should be at least 1 J times as high as the width of bed ; but as stone, 
except when used in columns, is always made of less height than bed, 
the cubical form of specimens adopted for the experiments affords 
sufficient security against angular breakage. 

APPARATUS FOR TESTING. 

The apparatus employed for testing is a hydrostatic press, known as 
the Hoe press, and shown in Figs. 1 and 2 of the diagram accompanying 
this report. The pump, &, stands on a tank, a, filled with water, with a 
suction-pipe running nearly to its bottom. The plunger, c, is worked by 
a hand-lever, g y attached to a cross-head, 7t, and guided by the rod, d y 
passing through the guide, e, which forms part of the standard,/. The 
power, or purchase, of the hand-lever can be adjusted by changing its 
fulcrum to either one of the three pin-holes of the standard. 

A connecting-pipe, fc, leads from the pump to the lower end of the 
cylinder, m, of the press. When the pump is worked, the water is 
forced through this pipe into the cylinder, and gradually lifts the piston, 
or ram, n, which in this case had a diameter of 4J inches. A leather 
disk is fixed to the lower end of the ram, which becomes expanded by 
the pressure of the fluid, and makes the ram water-tight. The table, or 
beam, o, is lifted up together with the ram, as well as the movable 
piece, _p, which had to be used in these experiments merely on account 
of the small size of the samples tested. 

The stone to be tested is placed on top of p, between two pieces of 
pine wood, as already mentioned, and gradually raised until it touches 
the lower face of the beam, or cross-head, q. By continued pumping, 



6 

the pressure is increased until the stone crushes, and the amount of 
pressure noted by means of the gauges. The upper beam, q, is con- 
nected to the bottom beam by four wrought-iron rods, r, If inches 
thick, which, it will be seen, are subjected to a tensile strain only, after 
the pressure exceeds the weight of the upper cross-beam. All the other 
parts of the prees are of cast iron. 

GAUGES. 

The press is supplied with two gauges, one indicating the pressure up to 
100,000 pounds • the other to only 5,000 pounds, as shown in Fig. 1. Both 
are connected by pipes with the lower end of the cylinder of the ram* 
Both gauges may be used simultaneously until the capacity of the 5,000- 
pound gauge is exhausted, when its connection with the cylinder is 
shut off by a little valve worked by a hand-wheel. Generally, in test- 
ing stones, the lighter gauge is not used. 

To check the working of the 100,000-pound gauge next to the press? 
another gauge of similar capacity was employed as a test-gauge. It is 
attached to the connecting-pipe, fc, near to the pump. These gauges 
were manufactured in the city of Isevf York on a modified arrangement 
of Bourdon's principle. 

The 100,000-pound gauge attached to the press is shown in Figs. 3, 4, 
and 5, drawn half-size. This gauge, like the two others, has a dial-race, 
traversed by two hands of unequal length. One of these is moved 
directly by the power of the press ; the other (shorter) hand is simply 
carried along by means of a little projecting pin on the back of the 
longer hand, or power -needle. The latter returns to the zero-point as 
soon as the pressure ceases, leaving the shorter hand at the maximum 
point reached on the scale. The record can thus easily be read off, 
after which the record-needle is pushed back to the zero-point in readi- 
ness for another trial. 

The mechanism of the gauge consists essentially of the following 
parts : A curved steel tube, (3), communicates at one end, by means of 
the pipe (1), with the cylinder of the hydrostatic ram *. but it is closed 
at the other end. The cross- section of this tube is flattened or ellipti- 
cal j its greater breadth being perpendicular to the plane in which the 
tube is curved. When power is applied, the water entering the tube 
tends to straighten it out, causing it to become less curved in propor- 
tion to the power used. This is explained by the fact that the area of 
the outer side of the bent tube is larger than the area of the inner side? 
the surplus of pressure on the outside tends to straighten the tube. 

The closed end of the tube communicates its motion by means of the 
link (1) to a lever, (6), pivoted between two little standards (5), which are 
screwed to the block (2). The lever (6) is made of the shape of an open 
rectangular frame *. its two pivots being nearer one of its ends than the 
other. Within this lever-frame another smaller frame is fitted, having 
in its center a pin to which the link (4) is hung. By means of two little 



set-screws, one at each end of the lever-frame, the link-frame can be 
adjusted to the proper distance from the pivots of the lever-frame. 

The lever-frame (6) has a toothed segment, (7), attached to it, which 
gears into a small pinion, (8,) fixed on the/spindle of the power-needle. 
A delicate spiral spring, (9), is fixed with its central end to that spindle , 
while its circumferential end is held in a stud of one of the standards 
(5) between the spindle and the fulcrum of the lever. When power is 
applied, the bent tube gradually changes its form to a more straightened 
curve ; the link moves the lever, which, in its turn, by its toothed seg- 
ment, turns the little pinion, and consequently also the power-needle 
fixed to the spindle of the pinion. As soon as the pressure ceases, the 
bent tube assumes its previous form, and the hand, or needle, returns to 
zero, aided by the reaction of the unwinding spiral spring. 

The graduations on the dial-plate of the gauge are fixed by comparison 
with an air-manometer, or with another Bourdon gauge, known to be 
correctly graduated $ and the correctness of the gauge is guaranteed by 
the manufacturer. But it is, of course, desirable to be otherwise well 
assured of the accuracy of the records obtained. For the series of ex- 
periments herein spoken of, a check was obtained, as already mentioned, 
by means of another 100,000-pound gauge near the pump, so that, a test 
between these two gauges once established, either one can be taken oft 
when rough work is to be done, (the most sensitive one always,) and 
the other used, and then both tested again. By this means there can 
be no change that would escape the notice of an attentive operator, 
and the actual power used can at any time be tested in full by the 
application of either gauge to a hydraulic press having a lever-accom- 
paniinent. 

WEIGHT OF MOVABLE PART OF RAM AND FRICTION. 

The weight of the movable part of the press is nearly 780 pounds, 
which, with its own friction, amounts to 800 pounds nearly. This is to 
be subtracted from the " strength of specimen," or 200 pounds from the 
strength per square inch. Much dispute has existed about the friction 
of the hydrostatic press when performing heavy duty. Bankine made 
some rough experiments, which caused him to estimate the friction at 
10 per cent. I. Hicks, civil engineer, of Bolton, England, found, by very 
careful and long-continued trials made regardless of expense, that the 
friction varies with the diameter of the ram, and that it is very small 
and very certain. By his trials the friction of the ram used in the ex- 
periments herein discussed (the cylinder being of 4J inches diameter) 
would amount to t 9 q per cent, only, or say 1 per cent. This could and 
should be tested upon the individual ram ; but, without special and 
costly appliances, it will have to be got at indirectly, and, therefore, 
slowly. 



. 8 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

The diagram accompanying this report shows sketches of ten samples 
of stone. The first one,, named homogeneous stone, is imaginary, and 
represents the general form of breakage of many sandstones and saccha- 
rine marbles. The separate pieces shown are such as are usually picked 
up after breakage, although with other varieties of stone they are gen- 
erally more angular. The other nine sketches of stone represent samples 
actually tested and broken. The numbers given with each of them cor- 
respond with those in the tables. The position of the cube when tested 
is also stated, whether it was placed on " bed' 7 or on " edge/' 

THE BREAKAGE OF STONE. 

Considering the infinitely-varied composition and character of all 
kinds of rock, it may be said that no material is less calculated to per- 
mit the establishment of special laws by a general form of breakage. 
It may be safely assumed, however, that more numerous and extended 
experiments, carefully and patiently conducted, will ultimately lead to 
the development of certain general laws relating to the behavior of 
stones under pressure, a knowledge of which will be most useful to the 
engineer and builder. 

Homogeneous stones seem, in most cases, to break in the following 
manner, (see diagram :) The forms of fragments a and b are approxi- 
mately either conical or pyramidal, according as the stone is friable and 
of obviously granular structure, like sandstone and a few kinds of 
marble and granite, or compact, such as the true limestones and most 
marbles and granites. The more or less disk-shaped pieces c and d are 
detached from the sides of the cube with a sort of explosion, flying off 
in a more or less intact condition. In e and /, the stone is generally 
found crushed and ground to powder by the attrition of the larger frag- 
ments. Of course, this general result, or law, is modified by the nature 
and quality of the " grain v in the stone, and those other causes of irreg- 
ularity which leave no two cubes of the same strength and condition, 
although they may have been cut directly apart from each other. 

This form of breakage occurs also in non- homogeneous stones broken 
" on bed f but it must be remembered that here the modification must 
be taken into account which " grain " produces as against homogeneity, 
rendering the object liable to split in rectangular fragments. This fre- 
quently lengthens the cone or pyramid in stones "on bed," and causes 
those set "on edge" to actually split in rectangular disks 5 the style of 
splitting being, of course, irregularly modified for different specimens. 
Sand-cracks, &c, in stones, have also their influence in directing the 
pressure, and even the difficulty of determining the "bed" in some 
stones, after being cut, may be a source of errors. 

The two strangest cases of abnormal breakage occurred in the United 
States Quarry limestone, (Bos. 29 and 30 of table,) the first of which, 



9 

"on bed," threw off a couple of thin fragments, and then exploded ; 
the balance of the stone being scattered about in minute particles. 
The second, " on edge," broke into wedge-shaped disks of moderate 
size. 

The Du Luth, dark granite (Nos. 73 and 74) split "on bed" into two 
disks nearly equal in size, which were forced a half-inch apart, though 
pressed at right angles to their line of motion by a force of 68,000 
pounds. The second specimen, "on edge," acted in precisely the same 
manner. A very curious result of this experiment was the fact that 
the pine cushion-blocks, which usually stand a pressure of 80,000 or 90,000 
pounds, and become indented but comparatively not torn or injured, 
were in this case spread over the pieces a and b as though the wood 
had been crushed to fiber in liquid resin and painted over with a brush, 
part of it coming down in rough festoon between the separated parts of 
the stone. 

But notwithstanding the diversity of phenomena attending the break- 
age of stones by direct compression, the obvious difference between the 
fragments produced by that operation and those fragments obtained 
by the stone-cutter's hammer is suggestive of laws, modified but always 
existing, and capable of being at least roughly classified. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

The stones whose resistance to crushing-pressure had been tested 
were also experimented upon in relation to their specific gravity. In 
the course of these investigations, it was sometimes necessary to be 
content with rather small fragments of stone, of not more than 15 to 18 
penny- weight ; but generally they weighed from one to two ounces. 

On commencing this part of the work, some doubt was felt in regard 
to the best means of obtaining the correct displacement of porous stones ; 
and all stones are more or less porous. It appeared evident that in 
weighing the stone first in air and then in water, an error would be com- 
mitted by saturation. The first idea, to give the stone a coating of thin var- 
nish was abandoned, because, although the pellicle would be thin, yet no 
means could be taken to know precisely what its thickness was, or what 
it amounted to in its effects. The second idea, to soak the stone in 
very fluid reisn, the pellicle to be washed from the surface before dry, 
was given up because it was desirable to preserve the specimens intact 
for experiments on freezing and other tests. 

The plan finally adopted was, first, to remove from the stone all loose 
particles, and round off all sharp corners and edges, bringing it, in fact, 
practically to that condition commonly known as "water-worn." It was 
then carefully weighed in air, immersed in water, and allowed to remain 
there until all bubbling had ceased, and its weight taken. It was then 
taken out of the water, and weighed again, in its saturated condition, 
with the precaution of previously denuding the stone of superabundant 
water by being compressed lightly in bibulous paper. The specific gravity 



10 

is now found by dividing the weight of the stone when perfectly dry 
by its weight in the air after having been saturated minus its weight in 
water. 
This may also be expressed by the formula — 

W 

Specific gravity 



w„-w, 



W representing weight of dry stone in air ; W, representing weight 
of saturated stone in air ; W, representing weight of stone immersed in 
water. 

In determining the specific gravity of stone, the weight of water was 
assumed to be 62 J pounds per cubic foot. 

RATIO OF ABSORPTION. 

The term " ratio of absorption " simply expresses the weight of water 
absorbed by the stone as compared with the weight of the dry stone ; 
that is, if the stone when dry weighs 300 units, and the column of 
" ratio of absorption" shows the fraction gjy, it means that, by immer- 
sion in water, the stone will absorb 1 unit of it, weighing 301 units 
immediately after its removal from the water. 

The method adopted for ascertaining the specific weight of stone fur- 
nished at the same time the means to determine the " ratio of absorption." 
The weight of the saturated stone minus the weight of the dry stone 
gives, as a result, the amount of water absorbed. This might, perhaps, 
more correctly be called the " avidity of absorption," since it was 
limited to the period of bubbling. Some few stones, having been kept 
immersed in water for several consecutive days, showed a slight increase 
in weight. 

Since the capacity of a stone to absorb water has much influence on 
its durability even during the warm season, and far more so in cold 
weather, the addition to the tables of this column was deemed advisable. 



11 






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DIAGRAM ACCOMPANYING REPORT ONTHK 

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS KINDS OF BUILDING STONE 

TESTED AT FORT TOMI>Kli\'S, NEWYORK HARBOR. IN ll?73 & 1874. 
by Lieul. Col. Q.A.GILLJMOJlE, Corps of Engineers Bvl.Maj. Gen! U.S.A. 



(1RANITK 



SANDSTONE 



SAND STONE 



SANDSTONE 



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■ 



The T«'ii samples <>r stones shown above nee drawn full 
Senle "!' Figs 1& 2 ■ 1 inrh-i', Font. 
Fig's 3,4& "> are drawn hsuf size. 






Figs. 3,4i 5 Represent details of BOUBDOHS MODIFIED PKESSnRB GAUGE. 
Fitf :i Shows the outer Itont of the Gauge 

„ ,i. ., Mechanism of the Gauge, the Dialplale being removed. 

, 5 .. h Section on line A-B. 



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